Glossary

Accommodation (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) a process to which Piaget referred in his theory of cognitive development, whereby an individual’s existing understanding is modified from a new experience.

Adaptable Hypermedia Systems (De Bra, 1998) systems in which users can explicitly set preferences or establish profiles through filling out forms to provide information for the user model, which is then used to determine the presentation of information.

Adaptable Systems (Streitz, 1988) systems in which users have the ability to diagnose their own progress and modify student/user models as needed.

Adaptation Model (Wu, Houben, & De Bra, 2000) the component of an adaptive hypermedia system that allows the system to modify information presentation so that reading and navigation style conform to user preferences and knowledge level and that specifies the way in which the user’s knowledge modifies the presentation of information.

Adaptive Hypermedia (AH) (Brusilovsky, 1998) a combination of the technologies of hypermedia and of user-adaptive systems.

Adaptive Hypermedia Systems (AHS) (Brusilovsky, 1998) systems that build a model representing the goals, preferences, and knowledge of the user to adapt interactions to the needs of the user.

Adaptive Navigation (Brusilovsky, 1998) adaptive hypermedia techniques that modify the links accessible to a user at a particular time; link adaptation.

Adaptive Presentation (Brusilovsky, 1998) techniques that modify the contents of a page based on the user model; content adaptation.

Adaptive Multimedia Presentation (De Bra, 1998) a type of content adaptation in which the selection of the presentation medium is based on the needs of the user but which does not yet allow for adaptation of individual elements of multimedia content.

Adaptive Text Presentation (Brusilovsky, 1998) a type of content adaptation in which the user model determines a page’s textual content. While there are various techniques for adaptive text presentation, they look similar from the perspective of “what can be adapted,” that is, those with varying user models see different textual content as the content for the same page.

Adaptive Systems (Streitz, 1988) systems that modify the student/user model to adjust to progress and characteristics of users.

Adaptive Tutoring Systems (ATS) (Streitz, 1988) what many refer to as intelligent tutoring systems, though Streitz is reluctant to ascribe intelligence to technical systems.

Aesthetic Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that engages the senses through works of art that relate to the subject matter being studied. Also, concepts and examples have their own aesthetic properties, which can be examined and discussed in conjunction with the topic at hand.

Assimilation (Piaget & Inhelder, 1969) a process of adaptation to interactions with the environment through which individuals add new experiences to their base of knowledge according to Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.

Asynchronous Learning (Jackson, 2001) directed study or “self study” that does not occur in real-time or in a live instructor-led setting.

Asynchronous Web Technology (Harasim, 1999) a type of Computer-Mediated Communication that involves the use of the World Wide Web to provide information in non-real-time.

Behaviorism (Graham, 2000) a major school of thought on the nature of learning and the properties of knowledge that was dominant in the 1950s and 1960s and focused on the observation of behavior and the adaptation of organisms to the environment. Behaviorist learning theories view knowledge as objective, given, and absolute.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves using one’s body for processing information in order to solve problems or build products.

Bug Catalog (Psotka, Massey, & Mutter, 1988) a set of errors compiled and analyzed by an intelligent tutoring system to indicate where a particular learner is having difficulty.

Categorization (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin, 1956) the basis of a cognitive learning theory developed by Jerome Bruner, a cognitive psychologist and educator. According to Bruner’s theory, people interpret the world in terms of similarities and differences among various events and objects. While engaged in categorizing, people employ a coding system based on a hierarchical arrangement of categories that are related to each other, with successively more specific levels.

Coach (Psotka et al., 1988) student modeling approach in which interventions are limited to hints and examples, rather than direction, when an Intelligent Tutoring System is convinced that a student is making an error.

CGI (NCSA, 1998) Common Gateway Interface, a standard for external gateway programs to interface with information servers such as HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) servers used for the World Wide Web.

Classicism (Eliasmith, 1998) an approach to modeling thinking from the field of cognitive science that employs symbolic processing to model thought processes, also referred to as Symbolicism.

Cognitive Constructivism (Chen, 2000) a school of thought within constructivism, that postulates that learning occurs as a result of the exploration and discovery by each individual learner. In the view of cognitive constructivists, knowledge is a symbolic, mental representation in the mind of each individual.

Cognitive Psychobiology (Hebb, 1949) interdisciplinary field of study involving biological neural studies. D.O. Hebb is considered by many to be the father of cognitive psychobiology.

Cognitive Science (Audi, 1995) the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, which attempts to further an understanding of intelligent activities and the nature of thought. The major contributing disciplines to the field include philosophy, psychology, computer science, linguistics, neuroscience, and anthropology.

Cognitivism (Gardner, 1985) major school of thought that employs an information processing approach to learning and uses a model based on the input-output information processing architecture of digital computers. Though cognitivist learning theories are based on active mental processing on the part of learners, such theories still maintain the behaviorist perspective on knowledge, considering knowledge to be both given and absolute.

Computational System (Gardner, 1985) a term used in Cognitive Science to denote a system that uses discrete mathematics to model cognitive agents and the process of cognition.

Computer Assisted (Aided) Instruction (Lawler & Yazdani, 1987) usually refers to sequentially ordered “linear programs.” CAI generally follows a step-by-step procedural approach to the presentation of subject matter, based on the principles of behaviorist psychology.

Computer Based Instruction (CBI) (Psotka et al., 1988) using computers for training and instruction. However, the term CBI usually refers to instruction that does not use technology from artificial intelligence. Production rules and expert systems are generally not used for sequencing the elements of information that are presented to the student. This approach generally produces linear sequences of information, and such CBI programs are referred to as “linear programs.”

Computer-based Learning Environments (Lawler & Yazdani, 1987) systems that use a constructivist approach based on Piaget’s theory of active learning, with the objective of providing an environment in which students can develop their own authentic knowledge. Examples of computer-based learning environments are Papert’s Mindstorms (Papert, 1980/1999) and Lawler’s Microworlds (Lawler, 1984).

Computer Based Training (CBT) (Beck, Stern, & Haugsjaa, 1996) developed in the 1950s, CBT bases its training approach on behaviorist psychology theory. CBT “teaches” courses by presenting knowledge to be learned through a step-by-step procedure, leading students from one item to be learned to the next.

Computer-Mediated Communication (Harasim, 1999) the passing of messages or sharing of information through networking tools, such as email, conferencing, newsgroups, and Web sites.

Connectionism (Eliasmith, 1998) an approach to modeling thinking developed in the field of cognitive science that views thought processes as connections between nodes in a distributed network.

Constructionism (Resnick, 1998) a term coined by an MIT researcher to connote the combination of constructivist learning theories with the creation and development of individually designed learning projects.

Constructivism (Houghton Mifflin, 2001) major school of thought on the nature of knowledge that views knowledge as a constructed entity developed by each individual. According to constructivist theory, information is transmitted but knowledge cannot be transmitted from teacher to student, parent to child, or any one individual to another; rather, knowledge is (re)constructed by each individual in his/her own mind and is relative, varying through time and space.

Constructivist Learning Theory (Chen, 2000) the theory, originally based on the research of Jean Piaget, that holds that learning is the result of an individual’s mental construction. The theory posits that individuals learn by actively constructing their own understanding, incorporating new information into the base of knowledge they have already constructed in their own minds.

Content Adaptation (Brusilovsky, 1998) techniques that adapt the content of a page based on the user model; also known as adaptive presentation.

Course Management System (Jackson, 2001) a type of online learning system, categorized in terms of its functions of content delivery, assessment, and administration.

Deconstruction (Rorty, 1995) an analytical method to uncover multiple interpretations of text developed by Jacques Derrida, a French philosopher, in the 1960s.

Differential Equations (van Gelder, 1998) a branch of mathematics used in dynamic systems theory to describe a multidimensional space of potential thoughts and behaviors, traversed by a path of thinking followed by an agent under certain environmental and internal pressures.

Direct Guidance (Brusilovsky, 1998) an adaptive navigation technique providing a link to the page that the system determines to be the most suitable next stop along the path to the user’s information goal. Usually provided via the “next” button, direct guidance offers a guided tour based on user needs.

Domain Model (Wu et al., 2000) the component of an adaptive hypermedia application that describes the structure of the information content of the application. The domain model specifies the relationship between the concepts handled by the application and the connection between the concepts and the information fragments and pages.

Dynamic (Dynamical) Systems Theory (van Gelder, 1998) the theoretical approach that uses differential equations to describe a multidimensional space of potential thoughts and behaviors, traversed by a path of thinking followed by an agent under certain environmental and internal pressures. Some cognitive scientists view dynamic systems theory as a promising approach to modeling human thinking.

Educational Adaptive Hypermedia (Brusilovsky, 1998) one of the six major application domains within existing adaptive hypermedia systems. Educational hypermedia constitutes one of the earliest application areas and is still the most widely encountered application domain for adaptive hypermedia systems. Most educational hypermedia systems limit the size of the hyperspace by focusing on a specific course or topic for learning. User modeling based adaptive hypermedia techniques are useful in educational hypermedia systems since knowledge level varies widely among users, the knowledge of an individual user can expand very quickly, and novice users need navigational assistance even in a limited hyperspace.

Educational Hypermedia (Brusilovsky, 1998) one of the six major application domains within existing adaptive hypermedia systems. Educational hypermedia constitutes one of the earliest application areas and is still the most widely encountered application domain for adaptive hypermedia systems. Most educational hypermedia systems limit the size of the hyperspace by focusing on a specific course or topic for learning. User modeling based adaptive hypermedia techniques are useful in educational hypermedia systems since knowledge level varies widely among users, the knowledge of an individual user can expand very quickly, and novice users need navigational assistance even in a limited hyperspace.

Entry Point Framework (Gardner, 1999a) an educational methodology that accommodates individual differences by providing multiple ways to introduce a topic. While certain entry points activate particular intelligences, a one-to-one correspondence does not exist between entry points and intelligences.

Epistemology (Heylighen, 2000) the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge and attempts to answer basic questions about knowledge, such as what distinguishes true or adequate knowledge from false or inadequate knowledge.

Existential/Foundational Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that allows individuals to approach a topic through addressing fundamental questions, such as the meaning of life. Philosophical issues invite certain learners to engage on a deep level, which piques and holds their interest in studying a particular topic.

Expert Model (Beck et al., 1996) an Intelligent Tutoring System component that provides a representation of the knowledge in a way that a person who is skilled in the subject matter represents such knowledge. In recent intelligent tutoring systems, the expert model is a runnable program with the facility to solve problems in the subject matter domain. The expert model is used to compare the learner’s solution to the expert’s solution; in this way, the intelligent tutor identifies specific points that the learner does not yet understand or topics the learner has not yet mastered.

Explanation Variants (Brusilovsky, 1998) content adaptation method that involves storing variations of sections of information and presenting each individual with the particular variation that best fits the individual’s user model.

Formative Evaluation (Tessmer, 1996) the evaluation of a working prototype or, in some cases, a rough draft of a system.

g Factor (Jensen, 1998) the theory that there exists a single, monolithic, and measurable, general mental ability in humans referred to as g.

Generative Topics (Perkins, 1998) topics that are central to one or more disciplines or subjects, accessible and interesting to students, as well as connected to teachers’ passions.

Global Guidance (Brusilovsky, 1998) a method for adaptive navigation support that helps the user follow the shortest and most direct path to reach the information goal by telling the user which link to follow next or sorting links from a given node according to their relevance to the overall goal.

Global Orientation (Brusilovsky, 1998) a method for adaptive navigation support, offering annotation landmarks and hiding non-relevant information so that users understand the structure and position in hyperspace.

Hands-On Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that engages learners in constructing experiments with physical materials or through computer simulations. Other hands-on approaches invite learners to learn by building or manipulating a physical manifestation of some aspect of the topic they are studying.

Hypermedia (Wu et al., 2000) technology that focuses on information nodes and the connections between the nodes.

Instrumentalism (Dewey, 1938/1963) naturalistic understanding and philosophy that was developed by John Dewey based on the underlying belief that thought is the product of the interaction between an organism and the environment and knowledge, guiding and controlling the interaction between the organism and the environment.

Intelligences (Gardner, 1999b) biopsychological potentials for processing information, solving problems, and developing products valued by the culture in which the person resides.

Intelligent Educational Systems (IES) (Goodyear, 1991) systems that advise learners and treat them as collaborators rather than directing them in an authoritarian manner. IES provide learner models that can be inspected and modified by the learners themselves.

Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction (ICAI) (Sleeman & Brown, 1982) Sleeman and Brown consider Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction to be the same as Intelligent Tutoring Systems.

Intelligent Tutoring Systems (ITS) (Psotka et al., 1988) an advanced form of Intelligent Computer Aided Instruction (ICAI) and Computer-Based Instruction (CBI) that attempts to individualize instruction by creating a computer-based learning environment. The environment performs in a manner similar to a human teacher, working with students to indicate when they make errors, offering suggestions on how best to proceed, recommending new topics to study, and collaborating with students on the curriculum. Such systems should be able to analyze student responses and keep track of the preferences and skills of each individual learner, customizing materials to fit the needs of individual students.

Interpersonal Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that engages learners with each other so that they can interact, cooperate, work together, or alternately debate and argue with each other. Students learn from each other through group projects, in which each student contributes to the overall effort.

Interpersonal Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves a person’s ability to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and, therefore, to relate effectively with other people.

Intrapersonal Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential to understand oneself and to construct an effective working model of personal capabilities and difficulties as well as to employ such knowledge for managing one’s life.

Knowledge based tutoring systems (KBTS) (Streitz, 1988) systems that incorporate knowledge about the subject matter, principles of teaching, characteristics of individual learners, and human-computer interaction.

Learning Management System (Jackson, 2001) online learning system categorized by function, similar to Course Management Systems, which contain content delivery, assessment, and administration functions with an integrated view of all active courses, with assessment and goal tracking facilities.

Learning Objects (Innes, McGreal, & Roberts, 2000) components, lessons, modules, courses, or programs that are individually-structured digital or non-digital entities, for use or reference in online learning systems.

Legacy Systems (Brinson et al., 2001) existing applications or systems within an organization that are not Web-based or are not integrated with the Web.

Linguistic Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves the ability to learn and use spoken and written language to process information and achieve specific goals.

Link Adaptation (Brusilovsky, 1998) adaptive hypermedia techniques that modify the links accessible to a user at a particular time; adaptive navigation.

Local Guidance (Brusilovsky, 1998) a method for adaptive navigation support that offers suggestions for the most relevant link to follow for the next step, based on the user’s preferences, knowledge, and background.

Local Orientation (Brusilovsky, 1998) a method for adaptive navigation support that helps users understand their location in hyperspace and nearby information, offering information about nodes available from the current location or limiting navigation possibilities, focusing on the most relevant links.

Logical Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that allows learners to deduce the cause and effect of certain occurrences and apply deductive reasoning to understand the relationships among various factors involved in the study of a particular topic.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves the ability to conduct logical analysis of problems as well as scientific investigations and to carry out mathematical operations.

Logical Positivism (Thagard, 1996) school of thought in philosophy that was widely accepted in the early 1950s, that questioned the value of systematic inquiry into the operation of the mind..

Marxism (Wilson, 1997) the philosophy developed by Karl Marx (1818-1883) that truth can be discerned by analyzing economic structures.

Modernity (Wilson, 1997) a period during the Enlightenment when the worldview was based on using rational, empirical, and objective approaches to discern the truth.

Multimedia Technologies (Cisco, 2001) a number of different media-based technologies provide delivery services for online learning. These technologies include: live, streaming video, audio and slides; on demand pre-recorded video and/or audio with accompanying graphics; browser-based Web conferencing combined with audio conferencing; interactive graphics, slide shows, audio and video clips, and Web pages.

Multiple Representations (Gardner, 1999a) an educational methodology that is used to convey the definitive aspects of an idea or topic, by modeling them through abstract or natural representation systems. The form of the representation may be closely tied to the physical subject, such as a photographic record, map, or chart, or may provide a formal model. Contrary to established approaches, Gardner argues for a family of representations rather than a single representation that is considered to be the best. Multiple representations allow students to choose elements from known reference areas to represent and model the new topic. The use of multiple representations allows students to understand on a deeper level through developing models of the new subject matter.

Musical Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves the ability to perform, compose, and appreciate musical patterns.

Narrative Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that engages students in learning through relating stories. Linguistic, Intrapersonal, and Interpersonal Intelligences are activated through verbal storytelling, with additional intelligences activated through symbolic narrative forms, including movies and mime.

Naturalist Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) a biopsychological potential which involves the ability to recognize and classify many species that constitute the flora and fauna of a person’s environment.

Neopragmatist (Rorty, 1979) a philosophical approach adopted by Richard Rorty, similar to the pragmatist view, based on the belief that as humans, we create ourselves and our worlds and that human understanding is based on our interpretation of the world through a variety of paradigms rather than on an objective structure of the mind.

Numerical Entry Point (Gardner, 1999a) a way to introduce a topic that offers students who like to deal with numbers and numerical relations the opportunity to learn through measurement, counting, listing, and determining statistical attributes of the topic being studied.

Ongoing Assessment (Perkins, 1998) asks the question: how will you and your students know what they understand? Students reflect on their own learning experiences throughout the process, and there are multiple ways for students to demonstrate to the teacher and to themselves what they understand.

Online Learning (Harasim, 1999) educational technology using computer-mediated communication facilities that generally arise from the use of Internet and Web technology.

Overlay Model (Beck et al., 1996; Psotka et al., 1988) the standard type of student model in which a student’s knowledge is considered to be a subset of that of a subject matter expert. A technique for student modeling which involves measuring the student’s performance against the standard of an expert’s model.

Page Variants (Brusilovsky, 1998; De Bra, 1998) content adaptation technique of fragment variants in which a fragment is an entire page. Multiple versions of particular pages exist and are selected based on variables in the user model. Users receive structurally different explanations of concepts based on user model attributes. Easy to implement, this technique offers a variant for each user stereotype.

Papert’s Principle (Minsky, 1985) Papert’s belief that major steps in mental growth are based on acquiring new ways to organize and use what a person already knows, not just on learning new skills.

Perceptron (Rosenblatt, 1958) a system invented by Frank Rosenblatt in 1957 through research in connectionism with which Rosenblatt demonstrated learning by a machine when the Mark I Perceptron “learned” to recognize and identify optical patterns.

Performances of Understanding (Perkins, 1998) asks the question: what will students do to build and demonstrate their understanding? Students can build and demonstrate their understanding through presentations, portfolios, and other approaches to demonstrate to the teacher and to themselves what they have learned.

Pragmatism (Dewey, 1938/1963) a school of thought developed by William James (1842-1910) and adopted by John Dewey. Dewey then developed a theory of knowledge based on pragmatism that encompassed a view of the world as one in which active manipulation of the environment is involved throughout the process of learning.

Primacy Effect (Gardner, 1999a) a psychological effect that means that students are particularly apt to remember the starting point in a learning experience.

Postmodernism (Wilson, 1997) a philosophy based on a belief in the plurality of meaning, perspectives, methods, and values, and an appreciation of alternative interpretations. Postmodernists distrust theories that purport to explain why things are the way they are, believing in the existence of multiple truths based on various perspectives and ways of knowing.

Psychoanalytic Movement (Wilson, 1997) school of psychology begun by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), understanding an individual’s psyche through an examination of the unconscious.

Self-Directed Learning (Harasim, 1999) self-paced, asynchronous online learning with the learner proceeding at his/her own pace through course materials.

Situated Learning (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989) instruction that places an emphasis on the context in which learning occurs and provides students with opportunities to construct new knowledge and understanding in real life situations, thereby seeking to avoid the decontextualized nature of typical classroom learning.

Social Constructivism (Chen, 2000) A school of thought that stresses the collaborative efforts of groups of learners as sources of learning and considers the mind to be a distributed entity extending beyond the bounds of the human body into the social environment.

Spatial Intelligence (Gardner, 1999b) the biopsychological capacity to recognize and manipulate patterns in both wide spaces and confined areas.

Stereotype User Model (Kobsa, 1993) a model used to represent the user’s knowledge offering a quick assessment of the user’s background knowledge. Stereotype user models can be used to classify a new user and initialize the state.

Structural Linguistics (Wilson, 1997) a model of language developed by Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), based on the belief that meaning comes not from analyzing individual words but from considering the structure of a whole language.

Structuralism (Wilson, 1997) a term credited to anthropologist Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-), who applied models of linguistic structure to the study of the customs and myths of society as a whole. Believing that individuals do not control the linguistic, sociological, and psychological structures that shape them and that can be uncovered through systematic investigation, structuralists moved away from the existentialist view that individuals are what they make themselves.

Symbolicism (Eliasmith, 1998) a school of thought in cognitive science that employs what is now referred to as classicism, using symbolic processing to model thought processes.

Synchronous Learning Environments (Smith et al., 2001) online learning systems that use audio or video conferencing (or a combination thereof) as their primary delivery modality to support live simultaneous interaction, similar to an in-person instructor-led classroom situation.

Teaching for Understanding (TfU) Framework (Perkins & Blythe, 1994) educational methodology designed to assist teachers in course development. The starting point in teaching for understanding is to develop generative topics, topics that are central to a discipline, and understanding goals to provide focus to the instruction.

Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Gardner, 1983/1993) the cognitive theory, developed by Howard Gardner, that each individual possesses multiple intelligences rather than one single intelligence. Based on evidence from psychology, biology, and anthropology, Gardner delineates criteria used to define eight specific human intelligences: Linguistic, Logical-Mathematical, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Musical, Spatial, and Naturalist. According to Gardner, these intelligences are both biological and learned or developed. Though everyone possesses these intelligences, individuals differ in which intelligences are more developed than others.

Thinking Style (Sternberg, 1997) a preferred way of using a person’s abilities according to how the individual likes to do something rather than how well he/she can actually carry out a task.

Throughlines (Perkins, 1998) ideas that are developed across the curriculum.

Understanding Goals (Perkins, 1998) what the teacher wants the students to learn; explicit and public goals that are focused on key concepts, methods, purposes, and forms of expression, as well as linked to assessment criteria.

User-Adaptive System (Kobsa, 1993) an interactive computer system that adapts itself to current users, employing a user model for adaptation purposes.

User Model (Wu et al., 2000) a component of an adaptive hypermedia application that represents such individual characteristics as the user’s preferences, knowledge, goals, and navigation history and may include observations of the user’s behavior while using the system.

Web-based Online Learning (Harasim, 1999) educational technology using computer-mediated communication facilities based on World Wide Web technology.

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